Alan Lomax (1915-2002) traveled the world with his recording equipment,…
The Antibiotic Hunters
- Description
- Reviews
- Citation
- Cataloging
- Transcript
Increasing resistance to antibiotics has been called the most pressing global health problem of our time. Medical experts are predicting a post-antibiotic era, in which people will die of infections easily treated just a few years ago -- unless we find more of these miracle drugs.
THE ANTIBIOTIC HUNTERS follows drug researchers as they investigate the slimy green fur of sloths, the saliva of Komodo dragons, the blood of alligators, and the bacteria in British Columbia caves and on the ocean floor off the coast of Panama -- all part of the urgent hunt to find the building blocks of new antibiotics.
'A captivating documentary which clearly depicts, with vivid imagery and compelling personal accounts, the global crisis that is antibiotic resistance...Incredibly informative and thought provoking, I highly recommend this film.' Dr. Phil Smith, Associate Professor of Environmental Toxicology, Texas Tech University
'An extraordinarily informative production...Elegantly presents the epidemiologic, clinical, and microbiologic information that is useful to understanding the nature of the microbial antibiotic-resistance dilemma.' George Allen Wistreich, Science Books and Films
'An outstanding documentary that addresses the most pressing medical problem of our times...Riveting footage...Uses personal stories to make the challenges presented by resistant microbes immediate and memorable. This documentary is an excellent teaching tool that will fascinate as it alerts viewers to an impending crisis.' Dr. Karl Drlica, Professor of Microbiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Author, Antibiotic Resistance: Understanding and Responding to an Emerging Crisis
'Enlightening...This video underlines an important international health problem and highlights medical researchers hunting for the 'building blocks of new antibiotics.'' Candace Smith, Booklist
'Emulating the thrill aroused by the classic text The Microbe Hunters of the 1900's, this 21st century documentary The Antibiotic Hunters animatedly recounts the current quest to detect viable antibiotics...This is a colorfully orchestrated adventure story on DVD that will appeal to a wide audience.' Rita Hoots, NSTA Recommends
'An outstanding film that get both the science and the human stories right. We see first-hand how hard scientists work to find new antibiotics and the devastation wrought by drug resistant bacteria. Antibiotics are valuable and hard to discover and should be used with care.' Kevin Outterson, Professor of Health Law, Bioethics, and Human Rights, Boston University
'Antibiotic Hunters is a high speed, real world snapshot into the fight and fixes for one of our greatest looming health crisis - antibiotic resistance...Whether inspiring future scientists or informing policymakers and the public, this film is an important contribution to helping the nation avoid a post-antibiotic era.' Dr. Shelley Hearne, Visiting Professor, Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
Citation
Main credits
Mohun, Bruce (film director)
Mohun, Bruce (screenwriter)
Ridout, Sue (film producer)
Slinger, Helen (screenwriter)
Suzuki, David T. (narrator)
Other credits
Written by Bruce Mohun, Helen Slinger; editor, Tim Wanlin.
Distributor subjects
Bacteriology; Biodiversity; Biology; Chemistry; Ecology; Environment; Genetics; Geography; Global Issues; Health; Law; Medicine; Microbiology; Science, Technology, Society; SociologyKeywords
00:00:01.455 --> 00:00:04.370
(BIRD AND ANIMAL SOUNDS
OF THE RAINFOREST)
00:00:04.370 --> 00:00:07.990
- They're on the hunt, in
tropical rainforests and frigid
00:00:07.990 --> 00:00:08.490
caves...
00:00:10.120 --> 00:00:13.050
- Oh my goodness,
who can live in here?
00:00:13.050 --> 00:00:15.510
- ...in the mouths
of giant lizards...
00:00:15.510 --> 00:00:17.540
- Good dragon.
00:00:17.540 --> 00:00:20.540
- ...and on the fur
of forest creatures.
00:00:20.540 --> 00:00:23.410
Scientists are hunting
for new antibiotics,
00:00:23.410 --> 00:00:26.240
because the ones we have
are rapidly failing.
00:00:29.060 --> 00:00:31.880
- We are potentially
returning to the dark days,
00:00:31.880 --> 00:00:35.260
the pre-antibiotic era, where
people would die from even
00:00:35.260 --> 00:00:36.145
a simple infection.
00:00:37.210 --> 00:00:38.730
- He couldn't even
push his button
00:00:38.730 --> 00:00:40.310
to get a nurse to come in.
00:00:40.310 --> 00:00:42.510
- Already, thousands
of people are
00:00:42.510 --> 00:00:46.720
dying of diseases easily
cured a decade ago.
00:00:46.720 --> 00:00:50.110
- I thought, well, who
dies from an infection?
00:00:50.110 --> 00:00:53.920
- Even the most powerful
antibiotics are failing.
00:00:53.920 --> 00:00:54.760
- It's been tough.
00:00:54.760 --> 00:00:57.038
It's been tough on not
only me, but my family.
00:00:59.030 --> 00:01:01.830
- The search for new
antibiotics is now
00:01:01.830 --> 00:01:06.137
an urgent challenge, drawing
scientists to remote corners
00:01:06.137 --> 00:01:07.111
of the planet.
00:01:08.572 --> 00:01:10.520
(THEME MUSIC)
00:01:22.710 --> 00:01:25.550
The rainforest
canopy of Panama --
00:01:25.550 --> 00:01:29.390
inside this forest lives
a creature so placid,
00:01:29.390 --> 00:01:32.020
you could say the
forest lives on it.
00:01:37.440 --> 00:01:41.140
Below the canopy,
biologist Bryson Voirin
00:01:41.140 --> 00:01:43.615
is leading colleagues
to a giant fig tree.
00:01:45.384 --> 00:01:47.550
- Most of the life here is
in the top of the canopy,
00:01:47.550 --> 00:01:50.550
and it's really remote
and difficult to access.
00:01:50.550 --> 00:01:52.870
- Drug researcher
Roger Linington
00:01:52.870 --> 00:01:55.790
is hoping to meet a
shy forest dweller
00:01:55.790 --> 00:02:00.050
whose fur is camouflaged
green with microbial life.
00:02:00.050 --> 00:02:01.550
- The real motivation
for this study
00:02:01.550 --> 00:02:04.580
is to see whether niche
environments such as this
00:02:04.580 --> 00:02:07.070
can yield new
classes of compounds
00:02:07.070 --> 00:02:08.940
for antibiotic development.
00:02:08.940 --> 00:02:15.900
- Bryson Voirin is a canopy
expert and, conveniently,
00:02:15.900 --> 00:02:16.860
quite the climber.
00:02:35.290 --> 00:02:38.390
- Right here behind me is
a female three-toed sloth,
00:02:38.390 --> 00:02:41.010
and you can really clearly
see her three toes and three
00:02:41.010 --> 00:02:43.140
fingers on her claws.
00:02:43.140 --> 00:02:45.390
Sloths are sort of one of
the mysteries of the jungle.
00:02:45.390 --> 00:02:48.960
They're a very weird organism
that lives only in the canopy,
00:02:48.960 --> 00:02:51.340
and they have all sorts of
different animals living
00:02:51.340 --> 00:02:52.279
on their backs.
00:02:52.279 --> 00:02:54.070
They've got a moth that
lives in their fur.
00:02:54.070 --> 00:02:56.528
They have an algae that's only
found in their fur, as well.
00:02:56.528 --> 00:02:58.470
They're like a whole
little micro ecosystem
00:02:58.470 --> 00:03:00.720
up here in the canopy.
00:03:00.720 --> 00:03:04.730
- Sloths are famously difficult
to unhook from a tree branch.
00:03:13.011 --> 00:03:15.510
- And I'm going to bring her
to the ground for a few minutes
00:03:15.510 --> 00:03:17.190
so that Roger can
take a hair sample.
00:03:28.726 --> 00:03:29.226
All right.
00:03:30.810 --> 00:03:33.297
The idea for this study
actually came as sort of a joke
00:03:33.297 --> 00:03:34.380
with some friends of mine.
00:03:34.380 --> 00:03:36.290
We were talking about how
there's a whole world that
00:03:36.290 --> 00:03:37.081
lives on the sloth.
00:03:37.081 --> 00:03:39.540
There's all these insects
and algaes and things.
00:03:39.540 --> 00:03:42.140
And she was saying, "You know,
you should really look and send
00:03:42.140 --> 00:03:45.150
some samples to this lab that's
looking at wild prospecting,
00:03:45.150 --> 00:03:47.339
to try and see if
there's antibiotics."
00:03:47.339 --> 00:03:48.380
It's a little bit feisty.
00:03:48.380 --> 00:03:49.213
- Little bit feisty.
00:03:49.213 --> 00:03:51.550
- So I'll hold her
just like a baby.
00:03:51.550 --> 00:03:55.080
- Roger Linington's lab at
the University of California
00:03:55.080 --> 00:03:58.660
has already found interesting
compounds in sloth fur
00:03:58.660 --> 00:03:59.970
from an earlier expedition.
00:04:04.080 --> 00:04:06.770
- Every niche environment
is different in its own way.
00:04:06.770 --> 00:04:09.690
We would expect that the
populations of microorganisms
00:04:09.690 --> 00:04:11.359
in each sloth will
be fundamentally
00:04:11.359 --> 00:04:12.400
different to one another.
00:04:12.400 --> 00:04:14.210
Some of the fungi from
the fur of the sloth
00:04:14.210 --> 00:04:15.910
had drug-like
properties which were
00:04:15.910 --> 00:04:18.880
very different to the current
battery of antibiotics
00:04:18.880 --> 00:04:19.935
available in the clinic.
00:04:19.935 --> 00:04:21.060
So it was very encouraging.
00:04:22.620 --> 00:04:25.460
- Linington is part of a
top-notch team of North
00:04:25.460 --> 00:04:29.600
American and Panamanian
scientists searching together
00:04:29.600 --> 00:04:33.880
for potential new drugs
from the natural world.
00:04:33.880 --> 00:04:35.970
Chemists have had
little success in making
00:04:35.970 --> 00:04:39.300
synthetic antibiotics,
so it's back to nature.
00:04:45.730 --> 00:04:47.970
The day after his
sloth adventure,
00:04:47.970 --> 00:04:50.270
Linington heads
out to Coiba Island
00:04:50.270 --> 00:04:53.700
off the Pacific coast of Panama
with the head of the research
00:04:53.700 --> 00:04:55.910
team, Bill Gerwick.
00:04:55.910 --> 00:04:56.895
- Panama is amazing.
00:04:56.895 --> 00:05:02.430
It's sort of this juxtaposition
of incredible biodiversity.
00:05:02.430 --> 00:05:05.890
- Panama is special because
it's at the junction of four
00:05:05.890 --> 00:05:07.930
big pieces of the planet.
00:05:07.930 --> 00:05:12.110
Plants and animals from two
oceans and two continents
00:05:12.110 --> 00:05:13.590
meet here.
00:05:13.590 --> 00:05:15.210
- Areas that have
high biodiversity
00:05:15.210 --> 00:05:17.830
are areas where the organisms
are in great competition
00:05:17.830 --> 00:05:18.800
with one another.
00:05:18.800 --> 00:05:20.590
It's that competition
that underlie
00:05:20.590 --> 00:05:23.140
the production of the
very bioactive molecules
00:05:23.140 --> 00:05:25.310
that we've been discovering
and working with.
00:05:28.830 --> 00:05:32.980
The island of Coiba is really
quite a remarkable place.
00:05:32.980 --> 00:05:35.380
Its forest is
essentially intact.
00:05:35.380 --> 00:05:39.480
The reason for this is that it's
been a penal colony for about
00:05:39.480 --> 00:05:39.980
a century.
00:05:42.950 --> 00:05:46.630
- Now, Coiba Island is a
national park, with forests
00:05:46.630 --> 00:05:50.030
and reefs relatively untouched.
00:05:50.030 --> 00:05:54.040
- This expedition is all aimed
at looking at marine sediments,
00:05:54.040 --> 00:05:55.700
and specifically
the bacteria that
00:05:55.700 --> 00:05:58.057
grow within those
sediments, and then
00:05:58.057 --> 00:06:00.015
using those bacteria as
a source of inspiration
00:06:00.015 --> 00:06:01.672
for new antibiotics.
00:06:01.672 --> 00:06:02.755
- That's the buddy system.
00:06:20.450 --> 00:06:23.630
- The world's oceans
are rich in microbes.
00:06:23.630 --> 00:06:26.320
These tiniest of
lifeforms make up
00:06:26.320 --> 00:06:29.310
90% of living matter
on the planet,
00:06:29.310 --> 00:06:32.610
and they constantly battle
each other for turf.
00:06:32.610 --> 00:06:36.540
It's the weapons they use that
can serve us as antibiotics.
00:06:39.480 --> 00:06:40.960
- Every environment
that you go to
00:06:40.960 --> 00:06:43.280
has slightly different
conditions, in terms of current
00:06:43.280 --> 00:06:46.920
and nutrients and predators
and all these other factors.
00:06:46.920 --> 00:06:48.620
And so every time you
go to a new place,
00:06:48.620 --> 00:06:50.610
you can expect that
the microbial community
00:06:50.610 --> 00:06:52.160
will be different.
00:06:52.160 --> 00:06:54.930
- The team is searching
for new antibiotics
00:06:54.930 --> 00:06:58.220
because our misuse of
these miracle drugs
00:06:58.220 --> 00:07:01.300
has rendered many
almost useless.
00:07:01.300 --> 00:07:04.510
- Antibiotic resistance is
when a microorganism no longer
00:07:04.510 --> 00:07:07.760
responds to something it
previously was killed by,
00:07:07.760 --> 00:07:08.890
namely an antibiotic.
00:07:08.890 --> 00:07:12.090
When we have an infection, it's
actually billions of cells.
00:07:12.090 --> 00:07:14.590
And if even one of those
cells has a slight mutation,
00:07:14.590 --> 00:07:16.190
a slight variation
that then allows
00:07:16.190 --> 00:07:19.120
it to survive in the
presence of that antibiotic,
00:07:19.120 --> 00:07:23.760
a whole new group of cells will
develop that similarly will
00:07:23.760 --> 00:07:25.250
be resistant to the antibiotic.
00:07:25.250 --> 00:07:27.080
And this is of grave concern.
00:07:28.720 --> 00:07:31.590
- There are hundreds of
millions of prescriptions
00:07:31.590 --> 00:07:34.370
for antibiotics
written each year
00:07:34.370 --> 00:07:38.730
and there are millions of
bacteria in each infection.
00:07:38.730 --> 00:07:41.350
So there are countless
chances for the bugs
00:07:41.350 --> 00:07:45.101
to mutate and build resistance.
00:07:45.101 --> 00:07:49.105
All of this is taking us to the
brink of a global catastrophe.
00:07:53.260 --> 00:07:57.460
In 2014, the World Health
Organization warned,
00:07:57.460 --> 00:08:01.150
"A post-antibiotic era in
which common infections
00:08:01.150 --> 00:08:05.760
and minor injuries can kill
is a very real possibility
00:08:05.760 --> 00:08:07.714
for the 21st century."
00:08:09.490 --> 00:08:11.940
Alexander Fleming
discovered penicillin,
00:08:11.940 --> 00:08:15.010
the original antibiotic,
after seeing just
00:08:15.010 --> 00:08:19.190
how deadly infections could
be during World War I.
00:08:19.190 --> 00:08:21.270
- And we saw thousands
of septic wounds
00:08:21.270 --> 00:08:24.080
that we could do
very little for.
00:08:24.080 --> 00:08:26.730
- Fleming warned that
misuse of antibiotics
00:08:26.730 --> 00:08:29.980
could lead to
resistance very quickly.
00:08:29.980 --> 00:08:32.960
Sure enough, resistance
has been accelerating
00:08:32.960 --> 00:08:36.460
at an alarming rate ever since.
00:08:36.460 --> 00:08:39.929
Streptomycin was
created in 1943.
00:08:39.929 --> 00:08:43.360
Resistance showed up in 1958.
00:08:43.360 --> 00:08:46.790
Tetracycline was
created in 1947.
00:08:46.790 --> 00:08:50.080
Resistance: 1953.
00:08:50.080 --> 00:08:54.660
Methicillin appeared in 1960
-- resistance only two years
00:08:54.660 --> 00:08:56.070
later.
00:08:56.070 --> 00:08:58.880
The modus operandi
of bacteria is,
00:08:58.880 --> 00:09:01.880
"What doesn't kill us
makes us stronger."
00:09:01.880 --> 00:09:05.140
And we're making things
worse by taking antibiotics
00:09:05.140 --> 00:09:07.510
even when they do no good.
00:09:07.510 --> 00:09:10.980
We can't seem to get it straight
that antibiotics only kill
00:09:10.980 --> 00:09:13.655
bacteria, not viruses.
00:09:13.655 --> 00:09:15.620
- For what kind of
illnesses would you
00:09:15.620 --> 00:09:19.244
think your doctor would
prescribe antibiotics?
00:09:19.244 --> 00:09:20.840
- Uh...
00:09:20.840 --> 00:09:22.010
the flu, I'm guessing.
00:09:22.010 --> 00:09:23.680
(SOUND OF BUZZER)
00:09:23.680 --> 00:09:24.880
- Infections in the body?
00:09:24.880 --> 00:09:27.020
- Which kind of infections,
bacterial or viral?
00:09:27.020 --> 00:09:28.819
- Oh, I guess...
00:09:28.819 --> 00:09:29.860
I forget which one it is.
00:09:29.860 --> 00:09:30.590
It's one or the other.
00:09:30.590 --> 00:09:31.260
I guess viral?
00:09:31.260 --> 00:09:32.980
(SOUND OF BUZZER)
00:09:32.980 --> 00:09:34.190
- Bacterial or viral?
00:09:34.190 --> 00:09:35.660
(SOUND OF BUZZER)
00:09:35.660 --> 00:09:36.920
- Not viruses...
00:09:36.920 --> 00:09:39.017
bacterial infections,
I would think.
00:09:39.017 --> 00:09:40.360
(SOUND OF DINGING BELL)
00:09:40.360 --> 00:09:42.220
- A lot of the infections
from here on up --
00:09:42.220 --> 00:09:45.790
from your bronchi on up
-- are driven by viruses.
00:09:45.790 --> 00:09:49.530
All colds, most
coughs, influenza,
00:09:49.530 --> 00:09:52.270
most middle ear
infection, most sinusitis
00:09:52.270 --> 00:09:54.370
gets by fine
without antibiotics.
00:09:54.370 --> 00:09:57.820
- Dr. David Patrick heads
a public education campaign
00:09:57.820 --> 00:10:00.710
called "Do Bugs Need Drugs?"
00:10:00.710 --> 00:10:05.177
Its goal: to reduce the
misuse of antibiotics.
00:10:05.177 --> 00:10:07.510
- There are a lot of pressures
on a doctor to prescribe,
00:10:07.510 --> 00:10:08.190
sometimes.
00:10:08.190 --> 00:10:09.970
There's time pressure
in the office.
00:10:09.970 --> 00:10:11.670
It's possible that
a parent will come
00:10:11.670 --> 00:10:14.290
in with full expectation
and a lot of heavy pressure
00:10:14.290 --> 00:10:16.520
to prescribe an antibiotic.
00:10:16.520 --> 00:10:19.100
- Even when doctors
request lab tests,
00:10:19.100 --> 00:10:22.230
in the meantime they often
prescribe a wide-spectrum
00:10:22.230 --> 00:10:27.070
antibiotic that can kill
many kinds of bacteria --
00:10:27.070 --> 00:10:29.584
including the good kind.
00:10:29.584 --> 00:10:30.500
- Whoo!
00:10:30.500 --> 00:10:34.685
- Just went for a root
canal, and after I
00:10:34.685 --> 00:10:37.190
got the procedure done
my tooth was infected.
00:10:37.190 --> 00:10:40.530
And so the dentist
prescribed me clindamycin --
00:10:40.530 --> 00:10:43.800
took clindamycin for a week.
00:10:43.800 --> 00:10:46.450
And then it was a week after
I'd been off of clindamycin
00:10:46.450 --> 00:10:48.616
that I got diarrhea.
00:10:48.616 --> 00:10:49.960
- Go down the slide?
00:10:49.960 --> 00:10:52.890
- Krista Kilback found
out she had a C. difficile
00:10:52.890 --> 00:10:56.160
infection, which can
cause severe diarrhea.
00:10:56.160 --> 00:10:56.800
- Whoo!
00:10:56.800 --> 00:10:58.030
Good job!
00:10:58.030 --> 00:10:59.920
- Clostridium difficile
is an infection
00:10:59.920 --> 00:11:03.410
that happens oftentimes
when you take antibiotics.
00:11:03.410 --> 00:11:07.590
And those antibiotics don't
just necessarily attack the bugs
00:11:07.590 --> 00:11:09.590
that they're supposed
to attack, but they also
00:11:09.590 --> 00:11:12.450
have an impact on all the
bacteria that are in your gut.
00:11:14.170 --> 00:11:17.500
- Many kinds of bacteria
inside Krista's colon
00:11:17.500 --> 00:11:20.900
were killed off, but
not the C. difficile,
00:11:20.900 --> 00:11:24.830
because it's developed a
resistance to most antibiotics,
00:11:24.830 --> 00:11:27.316
including clindamycin.
00:11:27.316 --> 00:11:28.168
- How are you?
00:11:28.168 --> 00:11:28.932
- Good, thanks.
00:11:28.932 --> 00:11:30.140
- It's good to see you again.
00:11:30.140 --> 00:11:33.750
- In fact, friendly
bacteria inside Krista
00:11:33.750 --> 00:11:37.310
were probably keeping the
C. difficile in check.
00:11:37.310 --> 00:11:40.340
When the friendly bugs were
killed off by antibiotics,
00:11:40.340 --> 00:11:44.010
the C. difficile took over.
00:11:44.010 --> 00:11:46.290
This is where the
antibiotic story
00:11:46.290 --> 00:11:48.860
becomes a little more complex.
00:11:48.860 --> 00:11:52.110
New antibiotics are
desperately needed,
00:11:52.110 --> 00:11:54.480
but many researchers
are concluding
00:11:54.480 --> 00:11:58.010
that using antibiotics
to fight every infection
00:11:58.010 --> 00:12:00.360
is counterproductive.
00:12:00.360 --> 00:12:02.670
Bill Gerwick has thought
a lot about this,
00:12:02.670 --> 00:12:05.895
even while he's searching
for new antibiotic compounds.
00:12:05.895 --> 00:12:07.910
- We're coming to
realize that we
00:12:07.910 --> 00:12:12.087
have some trillion
cells in our body,
00:12:12.087 --> 00:12:13.670
and we have about
10 times that number
00:12:13.670 --> 00:12:16.050
of bacterial cells sitting here.
00:12:16.050 --> 00:12:18.420
About 15 pounds
of any human being
00:12:18.420 --> 00:12:20.460
is actually bacterial cells.
00:12:20.460 --> 00:12:22.110
So we're not just individuals.
00:12:22.110 --> 00:12:24.250
We're sort of communities
walking around.
00:12:24.250 --> 00:12:27.060
And when we disturb that
community with an antibiotic,
00:12:27.060 --> 00:12:30.390
maybe we treat an infection
but we disturb that community
00:12:30.390 --> 00:12:31.390
enormously.
00:12:31.390 --> 00:12:34.750
And it gives rise to
other kinds of diseases.
00:12:34.750 --> 00:12:37.370
- Like Krista's
crippling infection.
00:12:37.370 --> 00:12:41.030
Not even vancomycin, the
Cadillac of antibiotics,
00:12:41.030 --> 00:12:43.240
can cure her.
00:12:43.240 --> 00:12:45.650
- She got better on vancomycin
with a couple of courses.
00:12:45.650 --> 00:12:47.110
But unfortunately,
the pattern was
00:12:47.110 --> 00:12:49.177
every time she would
get vancomycin,
00:12:49.177 --> 00:12:50.510
she'd get it for a couple weeks.
00:12:50.510 --> 00:12:52.600
She'd get better, she'd
get back to normal,
00:12:52.600 --> 00:12:54.520
and then her symptoms
would come back again.
00:12:54.520 --> 00:12:58.630
- I've actually tried also
another antibiotic called
00:12:58.630 --> 00:13:01.740
Dificid, and that
was the same story.
00:13:01.740 --> 00:13:05.300
It just always comes back
after two to three weeks.
00:13:05.300 --> 00:13:07.770
- Without an
effective antibiotic,
00:13:07.770 --> 00:13:10.980
Krista's looking at
some tough options.
00:13:10.980 --> 00:13:11.480
- Whoo!
00:13:11.480 --> 00:13:11.980
Good job!
00:13:11.980 --> 00:13:13.812
- OK, worst case, you
pretty much take out
00:13:13.812 --> 00:13:15.770
your large intestine and
all you'd be left with
00:13:15.770 --> 00:13:17.600
is your small intestine.
00:13:17.600 --> 00:13:20.240
Or you essentially
just put a bag on
00:13:20.240 --> 00:13:22.876
and you have to live with the
bag for the rest of your life.
00:13:22.876 --> 00:13:25.690
- How rough is all
this being on you?
00:13:25.690 --> 00:13:27.010
- It's been tough.
00:13:27.010 --> 00:13:30.433
It's been tough on not
only me, but my family.
00:13:30.433 --> 00:13:30.933
Yeah.
00:13:35.650 --> 00:13:38.790
- People like Krista Kilback
are in desperate need
00:13:38.790 --> 00:13:42.685
of new, effective antibiotics.
00:13:42.685 --> 00:13:44.625
And so the hunt continues.
00:13:47.540 --> 00:13:51.010
After his dives, Roger
Linington dabs the sediments
00:13:51.010 --> 00:13:53.670
he's harvested
onto Petri dishes.
00:13:53.670 --> 00:13:57.340
He hopes any bacteria captured
in the samples will multiply.
00:14:02.950 --> 00:14:06.270
Meanwhile, two other
members of the team --
00:14:06.270 --> 00:14:10.810
fungus expert Betsy Arnold and
plant expert Alicia Ibanez --
00:14:10.810 --> 00:14:13.884
come ashore onto
Panama's Coiba Island.
00:14:13.884 --> 00:14:16.490
- So would there be any
kind of fungi here also?
00:14:16.490 --> 00:14:19.508
- There'll be some, yeah,
typically some freshwater fungi
00:14:19.508 --> 00:14:20.008
that...
00:14:20.008 --> 00:14:21.720
- Look at that...
00:14:21.720 --> 00:14:23.430
- A little isopod.
00:14:23.430 --> 00:14:24.400
- Isopod, yeah.
00:14:24.400 --> 00:14:26.450
- Arnold searches
the world for fungi
00:14:26.450 --> 00:14:28.930
that might make new drugs.
00:14:28.930 --> 00:14:32.290
- Penicillin really is the
poster child for antibiotics
00:14:32.290 --> 00:14:33.090
produced by fungi.
00:14:33.090 --> 00:14:34.770
You know, the number
of people saved
00:14:34.770 --> 00:14:37.774
by the existence of
penicillin as an antibiotic
00:14:37.774 --> 00:14:38.440
is astronomical.
00:14:38.440 --> 00:14:39.340
- Let's look at them.
00:14:39.340 --> 00:14:39.839
OK.
00:14:39.839 --> 00:14:40.940
- Yeah, let's look.
00:14:40.940 --> 00:14:43.430
- Arnold wonders if
another penicillin
00:14:43.430 --> 00:14:46.750
could be found in the rare plant
communities of Coiba Island.
00:14:48.850 --> 00:14:52.490
Ibanez knows Coiba's
plants better than anyone,
00:14:52.490 --> 00:14:55.990
and wants to show Arnold
one that's unique.
00:14:55.990 --> 00:14:57.644
- It's just on the
west coast of Coiba.
00:14:57.644 --> 00:14:59.060
We haven't found
it anywhere else.
00:14:59.060 --> 00:14:59.820
- Wow.
00:14:59.820 --> 00:15:02.270
Yeah, so it's pretty
habitat-specific.
00:15:02.270 --> 00:15:05.630
- Ibanez has already
supplied Arnold with fungi
00:15:05.630 --> 00:15:08.950
from this plant for
analysis in her lab.
00:15:08.950 --> 00:15:11.050
But this is the
first time Arnold
00:15:11.050 --> 00:15:14.210
has seen the plant in
its natural habitat.
00:15:14.210 --> 00:15:16.000
- It's one of the most
interesting plants
00:15:16.000 --> 00:15:17.700
that we've investigated,
with regard
00:15:17.700 --> 00:15:20.100
to the chemical
compounds produced
00:15:20.100 --> 00:15:22.970
by the fungi inside
that plant species.
00:15:22.970 --> 00:15:24.670
The genus is desmotas.
00:15:24.670 --> 00:15:26.730
It's a member of
the citrus family
00:15:26.730 --> 00:15:30.320
and it grows on these really
steep slopes above streams.
00:15:30.320 --> 00:15:32.070
We had to be careful
not to fall in --
00:15:32.070 --> 00:15:34.100
some crocodile
possibilities down there.
00:15:35.640 --> 00:15:37.270
Any of the leaves
that we're looking at
00:15:37.270 --> 00:15:40.780
will have 20 or 30 different
fungal species living inside.
00:15:40.780 --> 00:15:44.680
And they need to eat the
products of the plant.
00:15:44.680 --> 00:15:47.834
And so when you've got two fungi
going after the same material,
00:15:47.834 --> 00:15:49.500
then they will fight
against each other.
00:15:49.500 --> 00:15:50.958
And in fighting
against each other,
00:15:50.958 --> 00:15:53.640
they'll produce compounds that
will limit the growth of one
00:15:53.640 --> 00:15:54.530
or the other species.
00:15:54.530 --> 00:15:57.890
And it's those compounds that
then have antibiotic potential.
00:15:57.890 --> 00:16:01.210
So you can sort of see
where the lichens begin.
00:16:01.210 --> 00:16:02.460
This is a pressing need.
00:16:02.460 --> 00:16:06.020
We need to go out to places that
we've never looked into before
00:16:06.020 --> 00:16:09.130
and capture those organisms,
look at their antibiotics
00:16:09.130 --> 00:16:11.250
and retain the organisms
in collections,
00:16:11.250 --> 00:16:14.430
so that when our technologies
improve decades down the line
00:16:14.430 --> 00:16:16.090
we might be able
to tap antibiotics
00:16:16.090 --> 00:16:18.450
that now we can't even
imagine discovering
00:16:18.450 --> 00:16:19.450
from that same material.
00:16:22.990 --> 00:16:26.990
- From a remote beach in Panama
to a cave beneath a British
00:16:26.990 --> 00:16:30.220
Columbia valley,
the hunt is on --
00:16:30.220 --> 00:16:34.340
taking some scientists
beyond their comfort zone.
00:16:34.340 --> 00:16:36.400
- Actually, I have fear.
00:16:36.400 --> 00:16:38.360
I'm a microbiologist.
00:16:38.360 --> 00:16:39.410
I'm not a caver.
00:16:45.580 --> 00:16:47.750
- That was probably
what, two years ago?
00:16:47.750 --> 00:16:49.684
- Yeah, it's got to be.
00:16:49.684 --> 00:16:50.725
That's a good one of him.
00:16:50.725 --> 00:16:52.175
- Yeah, nice smile.
00:16:52.175 --> 00:16:55.060
- Jen Quarrell lost her dad.
00:16:55.060 --> 00:16:57.560
Darlene Quarrrell
lost a brother --
00:16:57.560 --> 00:17:02.320
to an infection that
antibiotics could not cure.
00:17:02.320 --> 00:17:06.359
John Quarrell initially went
to Regina General Hospital
00:17:06.359 --> 00:17:09.640
because of complications
from his diabetes.
00:17:09.640 --> 00:17:12.279
- Mr. Quarrell came in
with a severe problem
00:17:12.279 --> 00:17:13.839
with his right leg.
00:17:13.839 --> 00:17:16.300
And the leg couldn't be
saved, so he ended up
00:17:16.300 --> 00:17:18.412
with an amputation.
00:17:18.412 --> 00:17:21.260
- But soon, Quarrell
was back in the hospital
00:17:21.260 --> 00:17:24.490
with more circulation problems.
00:17:24.490 --> 00:17:26.650
- He would be good
for a little while
00:17:26.650 --> 00:17:28.710
and then he'd go downhill.
00:17:28.710 --> 00:17:29.770
It was up and down.
00:17:29.770 --> 00:17:31.850
- Towards the end of
that hospitalization,
00:17:31.850 --> 00:17:35.830
he suddenly and quite
unexpectedly became unwell
00:17:35.830 --> 00:17:36.645
with a fever.
00:17:40.100 --> 00:17:43.470
- Quarrell had contracted the
drug-resistant superbug, MRSA.
00:17:46.140 --> 00:17:49.560
He was prescribed various
antibiotics and finally
00:17:49.560 --> 00:17:53.480
vancomycin -- but even it
couldn't stop the infection.
00:17:55.560 --> 00:17:58.650
- One of the heart
valves had evidence
00:17:58.650 --> 00:18:01.495
of a bacterial infection
on the heart valve.
00:18:01.495 --> 00:18:03.370
- So many times, my
auntie Darlene and I went
00:18:03.370 --> 00:18:05.980
to the hospital and he was
just laying in his bed -- like,
00:18:05.980 --> 00:18:07.940
dangling off the bed.
00:18:07.940 --> 00:18:10.860
He couldn't even push his button
to get a nurse to come in.
00:18:13.640 --> 00:18:16.900
- It's the people who are
already weak and frail who
00:18:16.900 --> 00:18:20.160
tend to pick it up
in the first place.
00:18:20.160 --> 00:18:22.910
- Dr. Kopriva phoned
me and said he
00:18:22.910 --> 00:18:26.480
has no hope that my dad
would survive the infection.
00:18:26.480 --> 00:18:28.810
But I never believed
that, you know,
00:18:28.810 --> 00:18:31.724
you could die from an
infection like that.
00:18:33.700 --> 00:18:37.285
- Six weeks after the phone
call, Jen's father died.
00:18:40.790 --> 00:18:43.090
With his compromised
immune system,
00:18:43.090 --> 00:18:46.455
John Quarrell was typical
of most of MRSA's victims.
00:18:48.800 --> 00:18:54.420
As many as 12,000 people die of
antibiotic-resistant infections
00:18:54.420 --> 00:18:56.820
every year in Canada.
00:18:56.820 --> 00:19:00.450
Like hospitals everywhere,
Regina General constantly
00:19:00.450 --> 00:19:02.730
battles these superbugs.
00:19:02.730 --> 00:19:05.590
- We've had outbreaks of
antibiotic-resistant organisms
00:19:05.590 --> 00:19:09.470
in the hospital, and
those require huge amounts
00:19:09.470 --> 00:19:10.025
of resources.
00:19:11.630 --> 00:19:14.560
- A large section of the
hospital's ground floor
00:19:14.560 --> 00:19:16.610
is dedicated to
infection control.
00:19:19.100 --> 00:19:21.700
- The surveillance component
is becoming ever more
00:19:21.700 --> 00:19:24.550
important: the
thousands of screens
00:19:24.550 --> 00:19:27.550
that patients in the
hospital have to go through,
00:19:27.550 --> 00:19:32.380
throwing out lots of supplies,
the intensive cleaning
00:19:32.380 --> 00:19:35.720
efforts from our
housekeeping department.
00:19:35.720 --> 00:19:38.580
- But inevitably,
resistant bacteria
00:19:38.580 --> 00:19:41.160
will occasionally get through.
00:19:41.160 --> 00:19:44.040
Hospitals desperately
need whole new families
00:19:44.040 --> 00:19:47.680
of antibiotics, drugs
the superbugs have never
00:19:47.680 --> 00:19:48.575
encountered before.
00:19:51.940 --> 00:19:54.390
Perhaps they will come
from beneath the Earth.
00:19:56.545 --> 00:19:59.080
- It's almost like the
first time in every cave
00:19:59.080 --> 00:20:00.200
that I go in.
00:20:00.200 --> 00:20:01.310
Each cave is so unique.
00:20:03.810 --> 00:20:06.360
- Microbiologist
Naowarat Cheeptham
00:20:06.360 --> 00:20:09.960
is one of a very small
handful of people worldwide
00:20:09.960 --> 00:20:12.830
who hunt for potential
drugs from the bacteria
00:20:12.830 --> 00:20:16.770
and fungi of caves.
00:20:16.770 --> 00:20:20.450
- What we have seen
so far in our lab
00:20:20.450 --> 00:20:24.386
is the fact that there
is a great promise.
00:20:24.386 --> 00:20:26.180
- OK, guys, this is it.
00:20:26.180 --> 00:20:28.080
- Cheeptham and
her team have come
00:20:28.080 --> 00:20:30.730
to the Chilliwack Valley
in British Columbia
00:20:30.730 --> 00:20:33.400
to investigate a new site.
00:20:33.400 --> 00:20:38.800
Caver Rob Wall discovered the
Iron Curtain Cave in 1993,
00:20:38.800 --> 00:20:41.150
and he's invited
Cheeptham to explore it.
00:20:41.150 --> 00:20:43.070
- There's a handle
here to grab onto.
00:20:43.070 --> 00:20:45.320
You have to lower yourself
onto the ladder down below.
00:20:56.410 --> 00:21:00.200
- It's dangerous work crawling
around this slippery cave,
00:21:00.200 --> 00:21:02.960
with only the erratic
light of the headlamps.
00:21:02.960 --> 00:21:05.660
And Cheeptham is
still an amateur.
00:21:05.660 --> 00:21:07.900
- Actually, I have fear.
00:21:07.900 --> 00:21:09.251
I'm a microbiologist.
00:21:09.251 --> 00:21:11.685
I'm not a caver by training.
00:21:15.770 --> 00:21:18.970
Studying this type
of extreme habitat
00:21:18.970 --> 00:21:23.180
gives us tremendous
information about life
00:21:23.180 --> 00:21:25.890
that has been exposed
to extreme conditions.
00:21:29.920 --> 00:21:33.000
These bacteria have been in
here for millions of years.
00:21:33.000 --> 00:21:36.270
They have evolved and
adapted to these kind
00:21:36.270 --> 00:21:38.400
of low-nutrient conditions.
00:21:42.150 --> 00:21:47.200
- Cheeptham normally
explores dry lava tube caves.
00:21:47.200 --> 00:21:50.390
- This one is totally
different in many ways.
00:21:50.390 --> 00:21:52.100
First of all, it's wet.
00:21:52.100 --> 00:21:53.565
I've never been this wet caving.
00:21:55.710 --> 00:21:59.490
- Cheeptham's team takes samples
from the cave's textured walls.
00:22:02.640 --> 00:22:05.950
Cavers have whimsically
used soda shop lingo
00:22:05.950 --> 00:22:08.680
to name the cave's decorations.
00:22:08.680 --> 00:22:13.830
There's popcorn, soda
straws, and moon milk --
00:22:13.830 --> 00:22:16.490
all of which can harbor life.
00:22:16.490 --> 00:22:18.960
- This is interesting,
because there are not
00:22:18.960 --> 00:22:21.460
many organic
matters around here.
00:22:21.460 --> 00:22:23.240
So when you think
as a microbiologist,
00:22:23.240 --> 00:22:25.630
you look at this and
you see, oh my goodness,
00:22:25.630 --> 00:22:27.070
who can live in here?
00:22:27.070 --> 00:22:30.350
But really, when you
look closer and look
00:22:30.350 --> 00:22:35.206
in a more microscopic level,
it's just full of life.
00:22:35.206 --> 00:22:35.955
Full of potential.
00:22:38.790 --> 00:22:43.040
- Some bacterial samples will
be left behind for a few months
00:22:43.040 --> 00:22:46.490
to see if they grow differently
than the samples coming back
00:22:46.490 --> 00:22:47.070
to the lab.
00:22:51.970 --> 00:22:55.710
- We don't fully understand
the relationships
00:22:55.710 --> 00:22:59.600
of microorganisms and minerals
in different types of caves.
00:23:03.920 --> 00:23:06.880
- In her lab at Thompson
River University,
00:23:06.880 --> 00:23:09.510
Cheeptham uses an
electron microscope
00:23:09.510 --> 00:23:12.640
to search amidst the
limestone for anything
00:23:12.640 --> 00:23:14.540
that looks organic.
00:23:14.540 --> 00:23:15.690
- So let me see.
00:23:15.690 --> 00:23:17.690
That is 20 microns.
00:23:17.690 --> 00:23:23.280
We would like to see whether we
can detect bacterial activity
00:23:23.280 --> 00:23:24.410
in real time.
00:23:24.410 --> 00:23:26.180
What are they doing in there?
00:23:26.180 --> 00:23:28.420
Are they actually
using those minerals
00:23:28.420 --> 00:23:30.280
as the source of their energy?
00:23:30.280 --> 00:23:32.065
Oh!
00:23:32.065 --> 00:23:33.010
- They're pretty, eh?
00:23:33.010 --> 00:23:33.510
- Yes.
00:23:33.510 --> 00:23:35.383
And look at all those.
00:23:35.383 --> 00:23:36.270
What was that?
00:23:36.270 --> 00:23:38.603
Like all that, look at that,
look at that, look at that!
00:23:38.603 --> 00:23:40.137
- I don't know yet!
00:23:40.137 --> 00:23:41.470
Boy, that would be lucky to see.
00:23:41.470 --> 00:23:43.386
- Ann just gets so excited
when she's on this.
00:23:43.386 --> 00:23:44.960
It's fun.
00:23:44.960 --> 00:23:48.400
- Learning how these
bacteria survive in the cave
00:23:48.400 --> 00:23:51.915
could tell her what
antibacterial weapons they use.
00:23:55.940 --> 00:23:58.940
Students work long
hours separating out
00:23:58.940 --> 00:24:02.760
the components of samples
brought back from the cave.
00:24:02.760 --> 00:24:04.460
- Bacteria are like us.
00:24:04.460 --> 00:24:07.350
They're actually so unique.
00:24:07.350 --> 00:24:09.610
Each of them like to
eat different things,
00:24:09.610 --> 00:24:13.020
like to grow on
different things.
00:24:13.020 --> 00:24:15.010
They like to live
in a community.
00:24:15.010 --> 00:24:19.800
We can't study a community, so
we try to isolate each of them
00:24:19.800 --> 00:24:20.840
out.
00:24:20.840 --> 00:24:23.610
As you can see, from
that many plates
00:24:23.610 --> 00:24:26.416
it could turn out to be
1,000 different isolates.
00:24:29.150 --> 00:24:32.580
- Once they've isolated a
promising cave bacterium,
00:24:32.580 --> 00:24:35.240
they'll place that on
a plate with bacteria
00:24:35.240 --> 00:24:37.320
dangerous to humans.
00:24:37.320 --> 00:24:39.260
Then, they'll watch
for the formation
00:24:39.260 --> 00:24:44.090
of an "inhibition zone" or
"dead zone" around the sample.
00:24:44.090 --> 00:24:46.880
This indicates that
that bacterium can
00:24:46.880 --> 00:24:50.110
kill the pathogen.
But this is just
00:24:50.110 --> 00:24:52.550
an early step in the
development of an antibiotic.
00:24:54.790 --> 00:24:58.020
Cheeptham often sends her
samples for further study
00:24:58.020 --> 00:25:01.400
to Julian Davies'
microbiology lab.
00:25:01.400 --> 00:25:06.280
- There's no doubt that
she has a gold mine
00:25:06.280 --> 00:25:09.650
of interesting
bacteria and bacteria
00:25:09.650 --> 00:25:11.590
that have never been
looked at before.
00:25:11.590 --> 00:25:15.191
Some are quite active
as antibiotics.
00:25:15.191 --> 00:25:18.640
- But once interesting
bacteria are found,
00:25:18.640 --> 00:25:21.710
you still have to be able
to grow and mass-produce
00:25:21.710 --> 00:25:23.310
the active molecule.
00:25:23.310 --> 00:25:25.250
That's not always easy.
00:25:25.250 --> 00:25:29.120
And after the right molecule
is built into a potential drug
00:25:29.120 --> 00:25:33.400
by a pharmaceutical firm, it
has to be tested on animals,
00:25:33.400 --> 00:25:36.490
and finally on people.
00:25:36.490 --> 00:25:40.270
Davies despairs of any of
these promising compounds
00:25:40.270 --> 00:25:42.480
ever becoming drugs.
00:25:42.480 --> 00:25:45.450
- The major reason why
pharmaceutical companies
00:25:45.450 --> 00:25:49.970
are not involving themselves
in antibiotic discovery
00:25:49.970 --> 00:25:52.280
is that they don't make
any money out of it.
00:25:52.280 --> 00:25:55.100
- For drug companies,
the big profits
00:25:55.100 --> 00:25:57.760
are made by treating
chronic conditions.
00:25:57.760 --> 00:26:00.760
- The pharmaceutical companies,
they make their money out
00:26:00.760 --> 00:26:03.380
of diseases of old people
more than anything else.
00:26:03.380 --> 00:26:04.690
I mean, I'm not...
00:26:04.690 --> 00:26:07.090
I'm not criticizing
them for this.
00:26:07.090 --> 00:26:07.590
They have...
00:26:07.590 --> 00:26:09.650
they're commercial
organizations.
00:26:09.650 --> 00:26:13.660
- And the irony of antibiotics
is the less they're used,
00:26:13.660 --> 00:26:15.600
the more useful they are.
00:26:15.600 --> 00:26:18.710
And that gets in the
way of corporate profit.
00:26:18.710 --> 00:26:22.460
Julian Davies believes
governments should step up.
00:26:22.460 --> 00:26:25.180
- And I think there
has to be more money
00:26:25.180 --> 00:26:26.700
funding small companies.
00:26:26.700 --> 00:26:31.010
Small companies can
make money on drugs that
00:26:31.010 --> 00:26:33.690
have a relatively small market.
00:26:33.690 --> 00:26:38.290
- Cubist Pharmaceuticals is one
of those small drug companies.
00:26:38.290 --> 00:26:40.200
They've been
developing antibiotics
00:26:40.200 --> 00:26:44.520
for almost 25 years in
Lexington, Massachusetts.
00:26:44.520 --> 00:26:45.700
- Hey Steve, how are you?
00:26:45.700 --> 00:26:46.200
- Good.
00:26:46.200 --> 00:26:49.610
- Steve Gilman is head of
research and development.
00:26:49.610 --> 00:26:52.490
- We have a staff that's very
experienced in developing
00:26:52.490 --> 00:26:54.680
antibacterials, and
being able to pick
00:26:54.680 --> 00:26:57.440
the winners from all the
possible opportunities
00:26:57.440 --> 00:26:58.300
out there.
00:26:58.300 --> 00:27:02.530
- So why is Cubist able to stay
in business making antibiotics
00:27:02.530 --> 00:27:06.580
when larger companies
aren't up for the challenge?
00:27:06.580 --> 00:27:10.250
- We spend nearly
25% of our revenue
00:27:10.250 --> 00:27:11.630
on research and development.
00:27:11.630 --> 00:27:13.950
And at the same time,
compared to other companies,
00:27:13.950 --> 00:27:16.210
we spend much less on
sales and marketing
00:27:16.210 --> 00:27:18.400
and administrative expenses.
00:27:18.400 --> 00:27:21.870
- To make any profit at
all, their drugs can be very
00:27:21.870 --> 00:27:26.640
expensive, like fidaxomicin
-- brand name Dificid.
00:27:26.640 --> 00:27:30.470
Designed specifically
to treat C. difficile,
00:27:30.470 --> 00:27:35.670
it was developed from a soil
bacterium discovered in 1967
00:27:35.670 --> 00:27:39.000
and it took 30 years
to bring it to market.
00:27:39.000 --> 00:27:41.350
The cost for one full treatment?
00:27:41.350 --> 00:27:42.162
About $3,000.
00:27:46.050 --> 00:27:48.360
It's a slow, costly process.
00:27:48.360 --> 00:27:51.870
So now, governments are
stepping in with incentives.
00:27:53.710 --> 00:27:57.070
The US has announced
a five-year plan
00:27:57.070 --> 00:28:00.050
to combat antibiotic resistance.
00:28:00.050 --> 00:28:03.940
Canada and the European Union
have invested $30 million
00:28:03.940 --> 00:28:06.590
into the problem.
00:28:06.590 --> 00:28:08.780
And in Britain, the
public was asked
00:28:08.780 --> 00:28:13.240
to vote for a worthy cause
to receive a research prize.
00:28:13.240 --> 00:28:16.410
- The 10-million-pound
science prize is Antibiotics.
00:28:16.410 --> 00:28:18.050
(GAME SHOW MUSIC)
00:28:18.050 --> 00:28:21.530
- 10 million pounds to the
researcher who can develop
00:28:21.530 --> 00:28:25.530
a cheap, quick test to see
if a patient has a bacterial
00:28:25.530 --> 00:28:30.260
or viral infection -- but
are these incentives enough
00:28:30.260 --> 00:28:33.450
to rebuild our antibiotic
storehouse in time?
00:28:38.260 --> 00:28:41.660
Microbiologist Cheeptham
is returning to the cave
00:28:41.660 --> 00:28:43.923
to collect her
remaining Petri dishes.
00:28:46.090 --> 00:28:49.070
- This field of drug discovery
actually takes a lot of time --
00:28:49.070 --> 00:28:52.460
and also, it costs a lot.
00:28:52.460 --> 00:28:55.890
- She knows she's one small
player in a drug system
00:28:55.890 --> 00:28:58.910
that seems to her to
be unable to deliver.
00:29:01.310 --> 00:29:05.660
- As a scientist, I
feel very frustrated.
00:29:05.660 --> 00:29:08.740
It's just beyond
my understanding.
00:29:08.740 --> 00:29:10.560
At the end of the day,
it has to be profit.
00:29:10.560 --> 00:29:13.670
Everything has to be
able to make the money.
00:29:13.670 --> 00:29:18.470
But that is my opinion
in terms of a scientist.
00:29:18.470 --> 00:29:22.140
However, as a mom of
a 6 and 1/2 year old,
00:29:22.140 --> 00:29:25.680
I truly feel devastated
if I have, you know....
00:29:25.680 --> 00:29:27.890
if you have all this
information and know
00:29:27.890 --> 00:29:36.650
that no one wants to pay
for drug discovery research.
00:29:36.650 --> 00:29:38.470
So what are we as
a human species?
00:29:41.320 --> 00:29:45.500
- While Cheeptham keeps
searching for new antibiotics,
00:29:45.500 --> 00:29:49.590
up on the surface we continue
to misuse the ones we have.
00:29:51.430 --> 00:29:53.880
A big part of that
misuse happens
00:29:53.880 --> 00:29:56.400
in industrial agriculture.
00:29:56.400 --> 00:29:59.750
Incredibly, up to
80% of antibiotics
00:29:59.750 --> 00:30:03.710
are used not on people,
but on farm animals,
00:30:03.710 --> 00:30:07.160
with the intent of fattening
them faster and keeping them
00:30:07.160 --> 00:30:09.570
healthy in crowded conditions.
00:30:09.570 --> 00:30:12.410
This widespread
use of antibiotics
00:30:12.410 --> 00:30:15.652
is contributing to
antibiotic resistance.
00:30:15.652 --> 00:30:17.830
- It's becoming a
serious problem.
00:30:17.830 --> 00:30:21.070
It's just getting bigger
and bigger and bigger.
00:30:21.070 --> 00:30:24.670
- Amee Manges studies the
connection between the farm use
00:30:24.670 --> 00:30:28.030
of antibiotics and
drug-resistant bacteria
00:30:28.030 --> 00:30:28.640
in our food.
00:30:30.340 --> 00:30:32.680
- When you apply low
doses of antibiotics,
00:30:32.680 --> 00:30:35.790
you eliminate the susceptible
bugs in the environment
00:30:35.790 --> 00:30:38.390
and you're allowing the
resistant ones to develop
00:30:38.390 --> 00:30:40.960
and be amplified,
you know, grow...
00:30:40.960 --> 00:30:44.180
overgrow in that environment
and be disseminated.
00:30:44.180 --> 00:30:47.020
So that's really the issue, is
you're not treating one animal
00:30:47.020 --> 00:30:50.120
and helping that sick
animal, basically using it
00:30:50.120 --> 00:30:51.365
in that entire environment.
00:30:54.870 --> 00:30:57.690
- There's always been some
chance of bringing E. coli
00:30:57.690 --> 00:30:59.860
home from the grocery store.
00:30:59.860 --> 00:31:02.160
But now, the bugs
you eat are also
00:31:02.160 --> 00:31:04.970
more likely to be
drug-resistant.
00:31:04.970 --> 00:31:07.310
- The highest burden
of contamination
00:31:07.310 --> 00:31:10.590
is in poultry and chicken
and turkey, especially.
00:31:10.590 --> 00:31:12.940
Depending on how the
meat is processed,
00:31:12.940 --> 00:31:15.600
the final retail meat that
you take off the shelves
00:31:15.600 --> 00:31:17.830
may have more or
less bacteria on it.
00:31:17.830 --> 00:31:19.920
And the more intensively
the antibiotics
00:31:19.920 --> 00:31:23.030
are used on the farm, the
more likely the bacteria
00:31:23.030 --> 00:31:26.620
that remain on the retail
meat will be drug-resistant.
00:31:26.620 --> 00:31:30.200
- The precautionary use of
antibiotics on farm animals
00:31:30.200 --> 00:31:34.900
was banned outright in the
European Union in 2006,
00:31:34.900 --> 00:31:37.050
but the practice
is still allowed
00:31:37.050 --> 00:31:38.850
on American and Canadian farms.
00:31:41.640 --> 00:31:44.975
Of course, there are many
different kinds of farms.
00:31:44.975 --> 00:31:48.030
On this farm, the
animals manufacture
00:31:48.030 --> 00:31:49.070
their own antibiotics.
00:31:49.070 --> 00:31:51.252
(ALLIGATOR GROWLING)
00:31:56.990 --> 00:32:01.530
The next great antibiotic could
be hiding in a weird and exotic
00:32:01.530 --> 00:32:04.940
place -- far beneath
the Earth's surface,
00:32:04.940 --> 00:32:07.920
on the fur of a
three-toed sloth,
00:32:07.920 --> 00:32:10.530
or how about an alligator farm?
00:32:13.280 --> 00:32:15.970
- We thought maybe we could
find a very evolutionarily
00:32:15.970 --> 00:32:19.330
ancient animal that maybe
would have a very strong innate
00:32:19.330 --> 00:32:21.755
immune system, having survived
for millions of years.
00:32:23.780 --> 00:32:26.576
- Monique van Hoek
searches for antibiotics
00:32:26.576 --> 00:32:27.700
in the blood of alligators.
00:32:30.420 --> 00:32:33.470
- We can't tell age by
looking at these animals.
00:32:33.470 --> 00:32:36.470
Bigger doesn't
always mean older.
00:32:36.470 --> 00:32:37.650
- This place is amazing.
00:32:37.650 --> 00:32:40.310
There's 40 or so
alligators in this pit.
00:32:40.310 --> 00:32:42.290
There are many other
wonderful displays.
00:32:45.150 --> 00:32:47.960
- This is van Hoek's first
visit to the source of the blood
00:32:47.960 --> 00:32:49.800
she's been studying.
00:32:49.800 --> 00:32:52.410
Florida's St. Augustine
Alligator Farm
00:32:52.410 --> 00:32:57.580
houses hundreds of alligators
and other kinds of crocodiles.
00:32:57.580 --> 00:33:00.500
It's also home to a
couple of Komodo dragons.
00:33:02.950 --> 00:33:05.020
- I'm very interested
in the Komodo dragons.
00:33:05.020 --> 00:33:07.560
They are also
evolutionarily ancient.
00:33:07.560 --> 00:33:10.590
These animals are very large,
they're six to nine feet long.
00:33:10.590 --> 00:33:12.340
They're the largest
lizards on the planet.
00:33:13.980 --> 00:33:17.860
- van Hoek is hoping to get
not just more alligator blood,
00:33:17.860 --> 00:33:20.320
but also some Komodo
dragon saliva.
00:33:23.080 --> 00:33:26.100
- They will eat carrion, which
is dead and rotting flesh.
00:33:26.100 --> 00:33:28.680
And the other interesting thing
about Komodo dragons is that
00:33:28.680 --> 00:33:31.100
they are known... if they
sample the saliva of the Komodo
00:33:31.100 --> 00:33:33.900
dragon, it has more than
50 species of bacteria
00:33:33.900 --> 00:33:35.400
in their saliva.
00:33:35.400 --> 00:33:38.040
And many of these are
pathogens, dangerous bacteria
00:33:38.040 --> 00:33:39.950
that can affect
mammals, for example.
00:33:39.950 --> 00:33:41.770
So we think that the
Komodo dragon also has
00:33:41.770 --> 00:33:44.530
very robust, innate immunity.
00:33:44.530 --> 00:33:48.140
- van Hoek isn't looking
for bacteria or fungi.
00:33:48.140 --> 00:33:51.610
She's searching for a
special defensive molecule
00:33:51.610 --> 00:33:54.260
built into the immune
system of ancient animals.
00:33:56.780 --> 00:34:00.100
- An antimicrobial peptide
is a very small protein,
00:34:00.100 --> 00:34:02.550
and these are made by the
bodies of most animals
00:34:02.550 --> 00:34:05.110
as part of what we call
our "innate immune system."
00:34:05.110 --> 00:34:07.170
Antimicrobial
peptides kill bacteria
00:34:07.170 --> 00:34:09.090
by attacking their membranes.
00:34:09.090 --> 00:34:11.419
They kind of glom onto
the bacterial membrane
00:34:11.419 --> 00:34:13.460
and they punch holes into
the bacterial membrane,
00:34:13.460 --> 00:34:17.860
and this causes the bacteria
to blow up and thus die.
00:34:17.860 --> 00:34:20.699
- Kent Vliet, the
zoo's science adviser,
00:34:20.699 --> 00:34:24.659
will help van Hoek get her
vial of alligator blood.
00:34:24.659 --> 00:34:28.423
Curator Kevin Torregrossa
will do the wrestling.
00:34:28.423 --> 00:34:30.355
- Let's go get a gator.
00:34:30.355 --> 00:34:34.710
(DRAMATIC MUSIC)
00:34:34.710 --> 00:34:38.199
- Lots to choose from -- might
as well go for the small ones.
00:35:07.140 --> 00:35:09.450
- We want to use these
peptides as a scaffold
00:35:09.450 --> 00:35:13.335
to maybe build or create a
next generation of antibiotics.
00:35:15.320 --> 00:35:17.947
- And there's the blood.
00:35:17.947 --> 00:35:20.530
- So we got a tube and a half
of wonderful, precious alligator
00:35:20.530 --> 00:35:22.690
blood for our experiments.
00:35:22.690 --> 00:35:24.300
- Kudja!
00:35:24.300 --> 00:35:25.830
That's a good lizard.
00:35:25.830 --> 00:35:29.610
- Now, the bigger challenge
-- the Komodo dragon for some
00:35:29.610 --> 00:35:31.010
saliva.
00:35:31.010 --> 00:35:32.970
They'll try the male first.
00:35:32.970 --> 00:35:34.102
He's more docile.
00:35:34.102 --> 00:35:35.060
(KOMODO DRAGON HISSING)
00:35:35.060 --> 00:35:37.370
By the way, the mouse
is already dead.
00:35:39.720 --> 00:35:42.263
- Oh, I had to get
something there, right?
00:35:42.263 --> 00:35:44.040
- There you go.
00:35:44.040 --> 00:35:47.070
- Nice, dirty lizard mouth.
00:35:50.770 --> 00:35:54.580
- At her George Mason
University lab in Virginia,
00:35:54.580 --> 00:35:57.230
van Hoek has been able
to isolate peptides
00:35:57.230 --> 00:35:58.190
from the gator blood.
00:36:00.430 --> 00:36:02.970
Next, a test on worms.
00:36:02.970 --> 00:36:05.855
They infect the worms and then
inject them with the peptide.
00:36:08.300 --> 00:36:11.260
van Hoek can judge the
effectiveness of the peptides
00:36:11.260 --> 00:36:13.850
by the number of
surviving worms.
00:36:13.850 --> 00:36:16.930
There are some
dramatic findings.
00:36:16.930 --> 00:36:19.470
- We test against six
different bacteria
00:36:19.470 --> 00:36:21.510
and we found at
least five peptides
00:36:21.510 --> 00:36:23.290
that are very, very
good at killing
00:36:23.290 --> 00:36:26.450
all of the different bacteria
that we've tested them against.
00:36:26.450 --> 00:36:29.530
So we're really excited
about our results.
00:36:29.530 --> 00:36:32.310
- van Hoek is
tantalizingly guarded
00:36:32.310 --> 00:36:34.890
about the Komodo dragon saliva.
00:36:34.890 --> 00:36:37.150
We have found some
Komodo peptides,
00:36:37.150 --> 00:36:40.800
but I'm not really ready
to share that with you yet.
00:36:40.800 --> 00:36:42.182
We're very excited.
00:36:42.182 --> 00:36:43.140
(KOMODO DRAGON HISSING)
00:36:43.140 --> 00:36:46.370
- But it's a long way
from a promising peptide
00:36:46.370 --> 00:36:47.390
to a new antibiotic.
00:36:51.140 --> 00:36:54.580
So some teams of scientists
are looking for shortcuts
00:36:54.580 --> 00:36:57.300
by breathing new
life into old drugs.
00:36:59.940 --> 00:37:04.190
At Boston University, they're
borrowing from ancient medicine
00:37:04.190 --> 00:37:08.710
by using silver to make our
existing arsenal of antibiotics
00:37:08.710 --> 00:37:10.312
stronger.
00:37:10.312 --> 00:37:11.770
- Too much silver
can be a problem.
00:37:11.770 --> 00:37:14.220
Your body doesn't
well process silver,
00:37:14.220 --> 00:37:17.130
and so it can lead to
very nasty reactions
00:37:17.130 --> 00:37:20.484
and can itself cause
somebody to be ill.
00:37:20.484 --> 00:37:22.150
One of the advantages
that we discovered
00:37:22.150 --> 00:37:23.691
is that you could
actually use silver
00:37:23.691 --> 00:37:26.805
in very low amounts,
non-toxic levels,
00:37:26.805 --> 00:37:28.430
as a way to boost
existing antibiotics.
00:37:30.290 --> 00:37:34.490
- Even the best antibiotics
we have, like vancomycin,
00:37:34.490 --> 00:37:37.910
have a tough time combating
a class of bacteria called
00:37:37.910 --> 00:37:41.900
"gram-negative", because those
bugs have an extra protective
00:37:41.900 --> 00:37:43.190
shell.
00:37:43.190 --> 00:37:45.710
Silver can come to the rescue.
00:37:45.710 --> 00:37:47.530
- We have challenges
finding molecules
00:37:47.530 --> 00:37:49.550
that can get inside those.
00:37:49.550 --> 00:37:52.220
When we discovered
that silver will change
00:37:52.220 --> 00:37:56.420
the permeability of the membrane
in gram-negatives like E. coli,
00:37:56.420 --> 00:37:59.180
we had the hypothesis
that maybe you
00:37:59.180 --> 00:38:00.930
could use this to
enable vancomycin
00:38:00.930 --> 00:38:02.350
to get into those
cells and kill.
00:38:02.350 --> 00:38:05.630
And we in fact found,
not only in the dish
00:38:05.630 --> 00:38:08.007
could silver in small
amounts make vanco effective,
00:38:08.007 --> 00:38:09.340
but it also worked well in mice.
00:38:13.360 --> 00:38:17.320
- Any new, improved vancomycin
wouldn't be ready in time
00:38:17.320 --> 00:38:19.360
to help Krista Kilback.
00:38:19.360 --> 00:38:21.810
On her doctor's
advice, she's going
00:38:21.810 --> 00:38:25.230
to try a very
different solution.
00:38:25.230 --> 00:38:26.650
- It was actually
very easy to do,
00:38:26.650 --> 00:38:29.025
that I actually didn't believe
that it was going to work.
00:38:36.280 --> 00:38:40.480
- Krista Kilback has struggled
for months with a C. difficile
00:38:40.480 --> 00:38:43.290
intestinal infection.
00:38:43.290 --> 00:38:48.250
Her doctor, Alex Wong, has tried
all the antibiotics available.
00:38:48.250 --> 00:38:50.090
Nothing has worked.
00:38:50.090 --> 00:38:53.060
But there's one
unusual option left.
00:38:53.060 --> 00:38:55.330
- Now, she's basically
on vancomycin
00:38:55.330 --> 00:38:57.890
as we wait for a
fecal transplant.
00:38:57.890 --> 00:39:02.040
- A fecal transplant is
just what it sounds like.
00:39:02.040 --> 00:39:04.540
- It's literally taking
someone else's poop --
00:39:04.540 --> 00:39:07.980
which theoretically has a
much more healthy composition
00:39:07.980 --> 00:39:11.170
of sort of good bacteria
-- and literally instilling
00:39:11.170 --> 00:39:16.010
or infusing that, either via
an enema or via some sort
00:39:16.010 --> 00:39:21.180
of endoscopy-type procedure,
into Krista's colon so that we
00:39:21.180 --> 00:39:25.510
essentially repopulate her
colon with good bacteria.
00:39:25.510 --> 00:39:27.970
- Krista was willing
to give it a try,
00:39:27.970 --> 00:39:32.000
but unfortunately the
transplant had to be postponed.
00:39:32.000 --> 00:39:35.840
Health Canada defined the
microbiota in the feces
00:39:35.840 --> 00:39:39.960
as a drug, and declared that
fecal transplants could only
00:39:39.960 --> 00:39:43.880
be done as part of
a clinical trial.
00:39:43.880 --> 00:39:48.420
So Krista decided to perform
the fecal transplant at home.
00:39:48.420 --> 00:39:49.800
The good news?
00:39:49.800 --> 00:39:54.354
It completely cleared up
her C. difficile infection.
00:39:54.354 --> 00:39:55.770
- I had the best
possible outcome.
00:39:55.770 --> 00:39:57.330
I'm able to eat anything I want.
00:39:57.330 --> 00:39:59.490
I don't have any
stomach issues anymore.
00:39:59.490 --> 00:40:02.140
I'm pretty much, I
would say, back to what
00:40:02.140 --> 00:40:03.830
I was prior to this happening.
00:40:03.830 --> 00:40:05.660
So I feel really fortunate.
00:40:05.660 --> 00:40:08.300
- Although it wasn't
available for Krista,
00:40:08.300 --> 00:40:11.020
there is another
unorthodox treatment that
00:40:11.020 --> 00:40:13.940
might well have helped her.
00:40:13.940 --> 00:40:16.040
It's called phage therapy.
00:40:19.120 --> 00:40:22.350
Each strain of these
bizarre-looking viruses,
00:40:22.350 --> 00:40:26.970
called bacteriophages,
kills specific bacteria.
00:40:26.970 --> 00:40:29.570
This treatment has been
used in Russia and Georgia
00:40:29.570 --> 00:40:35.020
for 90 years, but it's never
been fully accepted elsewhere.
00:40:35.020 --> 00:40:38.590
- The advantage of phage
in today's world is that
00:40:38.590 --> 00:40:40.620
they're highly specific,
species-specific,
00:40:40.620 --> 00:40:42.036
and in some cases
strain-specific.
00:40:43.580 --> 00:40:45.840
- Because they are
very fussy about what
00:40:45.840 --> 00:40:49.750
bacteria they inhabit
and kill, bacteriophages
00:40:49.750 --> 00:40:52.240
won't kill off
the friendly bugs.
00:40:52.240 --> 00:40:54.650
And Jim Collins
has shown that they
00:40:54.650 --> 00:40:57.656
can work against stubborn
bacteria called biofilms.
00:41:00.140 --> 00:41:02.636
- So the plaque on your
teeth is a biofilm.
00:41:02.636 --> 00:41:04.510
The stuff on the side
of a ship is a biofilm.
00:41:04.510 --> 00:41:07.850
The stuff in your sink, in
your drain, is a biofilm.
00:41:07.850 --> 00:41:10.720
The bugs in biofilms are
1,000 times more resistant
00:41:10.720 --> 00:41:13.160
to antibiotics than
free-swimming bugs, one.
00:41:13.160 --> 00:41:16.250
Two, bugs like to form
biofilms on anything
00:41:16.250 --> 00:41:18.030
we put in somebody's body.
00:41:18.030 --> 00:41:20.310
So if it's a catheter, if
it's an artificial knee,
00:41:20.310 --> 00:41:22.932
an artificial hip,
pacemaker for your heart,
00:41:22.932 --> 00:41:24.640
the number-one risk
is not the procedure.
00:41:24.640 --> 00:41:26.431
The number-one one risk
now is you're going
00:41:26.431 --> 00:41:27.650
to get a biofilm infection.
00:41:27.650 --> 00:41:31.710
What we did was engineer
bacteriophage to break up
00:41:31.710 --> 00:41:33.610
biofilms.
00:41:33.610 --> 00:41:36.420
- Like silver, these
viruses might also
00:41:36.420 --> 00:41:41.280
be used to boost the strength
of existing antibiotics.
00:41:41.280 --> 00:41:43.790
- And we showed that when you
delivered those phage with
00:41:43.790 --> 00:41:46.350
existing antibiotics, you could
boost their killing efficacy
00:41:46.350 --> 00:41:48.925
of the antibiotics
100-fold to 10,000-fold.
00:41:51.170 --> 00:41:54.030
- If those preliminary
findings hold up,
00:41:54.030 --> 00:41:57.080
it will be an incredibly
useful discovery,
00:41:57.080 --> 00:42:00.320
whether it's used on today's
antibiotics or tomorrow's.
00:42:03.030 --> 00:42:05.520
- As scientists, we
really feel an obligation
00:42:05.520 --> 00:42:08.105
to develop new antibiotics
as best as we can,
00:42:08.105 --> 00:42:11.210
and to contribute to the
resource of antibiotics
00:42:11.210 --> 00:42:12.555
that have helped humanity.
00:42:15.270 --> 00:42:17.700
- I think the situation
is getting more and more
00:42:17.700 --> 00:42:20.260
grim, really with each year.
00:42:20.260 --> 00:42:22.260
We are increasingly
seeing infections
00:42:22.260 --> 00:42:24.670
that are not treatable.
00:42:24.670 --> 00:42:27.150
And so if those start
spreading, we could be...
00:42:27.150 --> 00:42:28.924
we could be in dire straits.
00:42:28.924 --> 00:42:33.900
- I firmly believe that we will
not solve the problem unless we
00:42:33.900 --> 00:42:36.290
do find new antibiotics.
00:42:36.290 --> 00:42:41.010
We cannot control resistance,
but we can control the use
00:42:41.010 --> 00:42:41.590
of new...
00:42:41.590 --> 00:42:42.550
brand-new antibiotics.
00:42:45.538 --> 00:42:48.830
- And so the antibiotic
hunters continue
00:42:48.830 --> 00:42:54.320
to comb the wild world for
promising new compounds.
00:42:54.320 --> 00:42:56.090
- Are those the colors
you're looking for?
00:42:56.090 --> 00:42:57.700
- Oh, yeah.
00:42:57.700 --> 00:43:01.310
Hunting for new antibiotics
is an incredible adventure,
00:43:01.310 --> 00:43:03.440
and it's also
incredibly productive.
00:43:03.440 --> 00:43:06.389
As long as we have wild
environments with biodiversity,
00:43:06.389 --> 00:43:07.680
we have a chance for discovery.
00:43:12.480 --> 00:43:15.830
(THEME MUSIC)
Distributor: Bullfrog Films
Length: 44 minutes
Date: 2015
Genre: Expository
Language: English
Grade: 7-12, College, Adult
Color/BW:
Closed Captioning: Available
Audio description: Available
Interactive Transcript: Available
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